Staging anchor trees for improved concurrency and performance in page range index management

ABSTRACT

A distributed storage system includes non-volatile storage storing portions of a first object. The first object encompasses data having a first range of addresses and each portion includes data for a respective range of addresses that is a proper subset of the first range. A first data structure stores, for each portion, data indicating the respective range of addresses and a pointer to where the portion is stored. The first data structure includes a root tree and a set of trees ordered by creation data such that a last tree is most-recently created. The non-volatile storage stores received write data and a write buffer stores index data pointing to storage locations of the received write data. An index management system stores the index data from the write buffer into the last tree and, if the ordered set is empty, creates a tree in the ordered set before the storing.

FIELD

The present disclosure relates to index management for range-defineddata and more particularly to systems, data structures, and methods ofaccommodating updates to an index.

BACKGROUND

A distributed storage system may allow customers to store object data,such as images. The cloud storage system may also allow customers tostore range-defined data. For example, the cloud storage system mayoffer storage that appears as a virtual disk (also called a virtual harddrive) to a virtual machine. The virtual machine may be instantiated ina cloud computing system operated by the operator of the cloud storagesystem.

When the virtual machine writes data to the virtual disk, the cloudstorage system stores the data and maintains an index of which ranges ofaddresses have been stored. Over time, as more and more ranges ofaddresses, some of which overlap, are written to the virtual hard drive,the size of the index increases. The index may be maintained in a treedata structure, such as a B+ tree.

Certain storage use cases, such as storage representing a virtual disk,may have random read/write access patterns. Because of this, randomaccess time is a concern and the index needs to be highly structured toreduce access time. In other words, additional address ranges cannot beadded to the index simply by appending them to the end of the index.Instead, to reduce retrieval time, substantial portions of the index mayneed to be adjusted to accommodate new address ranges.

In various implementations, a form of write caching may be used, wherenew sets of addresses are stored in temporary data structures and latermerged into the main index. However, merging the temporary datastructures into the main index may still require substantial rewritingof the main index. In fact, merging a relatively small number of updatesinto a large index can result in huge write amplification. Further, anindex may have billions of address ranges, meaning that writeamplification imposes a significant computing cost.

The underlying data pointed to by the index may also need to be updatedover time. Garbage collection is the process by which obsolete data isreleased for other uses. While a merge of a temporary set of addressranges is being performed on the index, however, garbage collection maybe blocked. Further, while garage collection is occurring, merging maybe blocked. The amount of time that merging is blocked may besignificant because garbage collection may need to scan the entire indexand rewrite underlying data during that process.

In order to perform a copy operation, such as to copy a virtual disk foruse in a newly-instantiated virtual machine, the temporary store ofaddress ranges may need to be merged into the main index. Forinfrastructure-as-a-service, this copy may be a critical path indeployment and/or scaling, so any ongoing garbage collection may beaborted to allow the merge to take place. If garbage collection failsprior to completion, some or all of the work performed by garbagecollection may need to be redone. Redoing garbage collection is costlyin terms of processing power. In addition, if a copy command is runfrequently enough, garbage collection may never complete.

The background description provided here is for the purpose of generallypresenting the context of the disclosure. Work of the presently namedinventors, to the extent it is described in this background section, aswell as aspects of the description that may not otherwise qualify asprior art at the time of filing, are neither expressly nor impliedlyadmitted as prior art against the present disclosure.

SUMMARY

A distributed storage system includes non-volatile storage configured tostore a plurality of portions of a first object. The first objectencompasses data having a first range of addresses. Each portion of theplurality of portions of the first object includes data for a respectiverange of addresses that is a proper subset of the first range ofaddresses. The distributed storage system includes a file tablesubsystem configured to maintain a first data structure that stores, foreach portion of the plurality of portions of the first object, dataindicating the respective range of addresses and a pointer to where theportion is stored in the non-volatile storage. The first data structureincludes (i) a root tree and (ii) an ordered set of trees ordered bycreation data such that a last tree of the ordered set of trees ismost-recently created. The distributed storage system includes a writebuffer configured to, in response to receiving write data for theplurality of portions of the first object, store index data regardingthe write data. The non-volatile storage is configured to store thereceived write data. The index data points to locations of the receivedwrite data within the non-volatile storage. The distributed storagesystem includes an index management system configured to perform a mergeoperation to incorporate contents of the write buffer into the firstdata structure. The merge operation includes storing the index data fromthe write buffer into the last tree of the ordered set of trees and,prior to the storing, and in response to the ordered set of trees beingempty, creating a tree in the ordered set of trees.

In other features, the merge operation includes, prior to the storing,and in response to the ordered set of trees being non-empty and anoperation being pending on the last tree of the ordered set of trees,adding a tree to the ordered set of trees. In other features, the mergeoperation includes, prior to the storing, and in response to the lasttree of the ordered set of trees exceeding a first size threshold,adding a tree to the ordered set of trees.

In other features, the index management system is configured to performa targeted merge operation. The merge operation includes merging theindex data from the write buffer into a plurality of data structuresincluding the first data structure. The targeted merge operationincludes merging relevant portions of the index data from the writebuffer only into the first data structure. The targeted merge operationincludes, in response to the last tree of the ordered set of treesexceeding a second size threshold, adding a tree to the ordered set oftrees. The second size threshold is smaller than the first sizethreshold. In other features, the write buffer comprises volatile memoryseparate from the non-volatile storage.

In other features, the index management system is configured to mergethe root tree with at least one of the ordered set of trees. The atleast one of the ordered set of trees includes a first tree of theordered set of trees. In other features, the index management system isconfigured to perform garbage collection on the root tree and preventgarbage collection from being performed on the ordered set of trees. Inother features, the distributed storage system includes a memory tableconfigured to store the index data regarding the received write dataprior to the index data being stored into the write buffer.

In other features, the distributed storage system includes a read systemconfigured to, in response to a read request for a specified range ofaddresses, consult the memory table, the write buffer, and the firstdata structure to identify latest versions of data within the specifiedrange of addresses; assemble the latest versions into a contiguousblock; and respond to the read request with the contiguous block. Inother features, consulting the first data structure includes consulting(i) the ordered set of trees in reverse order starting with the lasttree and (ii) the root tree.

A computer-implemented method for a distributed storage system includes,for a first object that encompasses data having a first range ofaddresses, storing a plurality of portions of the first object innon-volatile storage. Each portion of the plurality of portions of thefirst object includes data for a respective range of addresses that is aproper subset of the first range of addresses. The method includesmaintaining a first data structure that stores, for each portion of theplurality of portions of the first object, data indicating therespective range of addresses and a pointer to where the portion isstored in the non-volatile storage. The first data structure includes(i) a root tree and (ii) an ordered set of trees ordered by creationdata such that a last tree of the ordered set of trees is most-recentlycreated. The method includes, in response to receiving write data,storing the received write data into the non-volatile storage andstoring index data regarding the received write data into a writebuffer. The index data points to locations of the received write data inthe non-volatile storage. The method includes performing a mergeoperation to incorporate contents of the write buffer into the firstdata structure. The merge operation includes storing the index data fromthe write buffer into the last tree of the ordered set of trees and,prior to the storing, and in response to the ordered set of trees beingempty, creating a tree in the ordered set of trees.

In other features, the merge operation includes, prior to the storing,and in response to the ordered set of trees being non-empty and anoperation being pending on the last tree of the ordered set of trees,adding a tree to the ordered set of trees. In other features, the mergeoperation includes, prior to the storing, and in response to the lasttree of the ordered set of trees exceeding a first size threshold,adding a tree to the ordered set of trees.

In other features, the method includes performing a targeted mergeoperation. The merge operation includes merging the index data from thewrite buffer into a plurality of data structures including the firstdata structure. The targeted merge operation includes merging relevantportions of the index data from the write buffer only into the firstdata structure. The targeted merge operation includes, in response tothe last tree of the ordered set of trees exceeding a second sizethreshold, adding a tree to the ordered set of trees. The second sizethreshold is smaller than the first size threshold.

In other features, the method includes merging the root tree with atleast one of the ordered set of trees. The at least one of the orderedset of trees includes a first tree of the ordered set of trees. In otherfeatures, the method includes performing garbage collection on the roottree and preventing garbage collection from being performed on theordered set of trees. In other features, the method includes storing theindex data regarding the received write data in a memory table prior tothe index data being stored into the write buffer.

In other features, the method includes, in response to a read requestfor a specified range of addresses, (i) consulting the memory table, thewrite buffer, and the first data structure to identify latest versionsof data within the specified range of addresses, (ii) assembling thelatest versions into a contiguous block, and (iii) responding to theread request with the contiguous block. In other features, consultingthe first data structure includes consulting (i) the ordered set oftrees in reverse order starting with the last tree and (ii) the roottree.

A non-transitory computer-readable medium includes processor-executableinstructions. The instructions include, for a first object thatencompasses data having a first range of addresses, storing a pluralityof portions of the first object in non-volatile storage. Each portion ofthe plurality of portions of the first object includes data for arespective range of addresses that is a proper subset of the first rangeof addresses. The instructions include maintaining a first datastructure that stores, for each portion of the plurality of portions ofthe first object, data indicating the respective range of addresses anda pointer to where the portion is stored in the non-volatile storage.The first data structure includes (i) a root tree and (ii) an orderedset of trees ordered by creation data such that a last tree of theordered set of trees is most-recently created. The instructions include,in response to receiving write data, storing the received write datainto the non-volatile storage and storing index data regarding thereceived write data into a write buffer. The index data points tolocations of the received write data in the non-volatile storage. Theinstructions include performing a merge operation to incorporatecontents of the write buffer into the first data structure. The mergeoperation includes storing the index data from the write buffer into thelast tree of the ordered set of trees and, prior to the storing, and inresponse to the ordered set of trees being empty, creating a tree in theordered set of trees.

Further areas of applicability of the present disclosure will becomeapparent from the detailed description, the claims, and the drawings.The detailed description and specific examples are intended for purposesof illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of thedisclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present disclosure will become more fully understood from thedetailed description and the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a simplified block diagram of an example distributed computingsystem including a cloud storage system.

FIG. 2 is a functional block diagram of an example implementation of aclient device executing applications that access cloud storage of thedistributed computing system.

FIG. 3 is a functional block diagram of an example implementation of aserver that performs one or more functions of the cloud storage system.

FIG. 4 is a high-level block diagram of an example distributed cloudstorage system.

FIG. 5 is a graphical illustration of example logical index tablesstored by a cloud storage system.

FIG. 6 is a graphical illustration of the relationship between logicaland physical indexing and storage of an index table for page blobs.

FIG. 7 is a high-level functional block diagram of a storage stampwithin the cloud storage system.

FIG. 8 is a simplified graphical illustration of an indexing hierarchyfor a page blob data structure.

FIG. 9 is a high-level depiction of read and write operations in a cacheindex hierarchy.

FIG. 10 is a simplified example of data being written to extent datastructures while index entries are created.

FIG. 11A is a graphical illustration of a simplified cross-mergeoperation.

FIG. 11B is a graphical illustration of a simplified cross-mergeoperation in which an additional anchor tree is created.

FIG. 12 is a graphical illustration of a simplified anchor mergeoperation to combine multiple anchor trees into a single anchor tree.

FIG. 13 is a graphical illustration of write data being stored in extentdata structures and index entries being created, where the addressranges of the write data overlap.

FIG. 14A is a graphical illustration of a simplified cross-mergeoperation in which overlapping address ranges are broken down.

FIG. 14B is a graphical illustration of an example cross-merge operationin which a new anchor tree is created.

FIG. 15 is a graphical illustration of a simplified anchor merge inwhich address ranges of the anchor trees to be merged overlap.

FIG. 16 is a graphical illustration of new anchor creation in responseto a snapshot.

FIG. 17 is a graphical illustration of an anchor merge and a cross-mergefollowing a snapshot.

FIG. 18 is a graphical illustration of an example 2-anchor-tree mergefollowing a snapshot.

FIG. 19 is a graphical illustration of a 3-anchor-tree merge following asnapshot.

FIG. 20 is a functional block diagram of example elements of a tableserver.

FIG. 21 is a flowchart depicting example cross-merge operation.

FIG. 22 is a flowchart depicting example anchor merge operation.

FIG. 23 is a flowchart depicting example garbage collection operation.

In the drawings, reference numbers may be reused to identify similarand/or identical elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Introduction

Cloud storage systems may provide a variety of storage offerings. Forexample, cloud storage systems may allow customers to store sets offiles (called file sets below). The cloud storage system may thenprovide a standardized interface, such as server message block (SMB), toallow access to these files. Such file storage may be used whentransitioning storage of files to the cloud but relying on applicationsthat expect a standardized network interface, such as SMB. In this way,those applications may be hosted in the cloud without rewriting.

Cloud storage systems may also allow customers to store data identifiedby address range. For example, the cloud storage system may present anaddress-based interface to a virtual machine to emulate a hard drive.When storing file sets or address-defined data, the data may be indexedin a tree structure. For simplicity, in the discussion below, ranges ofaddresses will be discussed in the context of a virtual disk. However,the present disclosure applies to other storage offerings, such as filesets.

Over time, as a virtual machine writes data to a virtual disk, theaddress ranges of that written data become numerous. In fact, the numberof address ranges may grow to be in the billions. Therefore, efficientindexing structures are implemented, such as log structured merge (LSM)trees and B+ trees. In the discussion below, the generic term anchortree will be used to indicate the indexing structure, and the anchortree may be implemented using, for example, an LSM tree or a B+ tree.

Prior to development of the present disclosure, a single anchor treestored all of the address range entries in the index for a virtual disk.As described above, merging newly-written address ranges into a largeanchor tree causes write amplification where one new address range entrycauses rewriting of multiple address range entries in the anchor tree.In addition, merging new data into the anchor tree blocks garbagecollection from running, which increases the amount of invalid databeing stored that cannot be reallocated to storage of valid data.Further, garbage collection may block merging.

To address these problems, the present disclosure describes an anchor,which is a set of one or more anchor trees. When merging a set of newwrites into the anchor, the merge process has the option of merging thewrites into an existing anchor tree or creating a new anchor tree.Adding a set of new address ranges to a new anchor tree creates no writeamplification. Further, if garbage collection is operating on theexisting anchor tree, the merge operation can create a new anchor tree,allowing garbage collection to continue.

When a read request is received, all of the anchor trees in the anchormay need to be consulted, starting with the last anchor tree. As aresult, the number of anchor trees should not grow unbounded. Therefore,the present disclosure defines a process called anchor merge thatcombines multiple anchor trees into a single anchor tree. Over time,anchor merge causes the number of anchor trees in an anchor to trendtoward one, while additional writes cause the merge process to increasethe number of anchor trees.

When a snapshot is taken, the data at the time of the snapshot will beretained. Therefore, the indexed data at that time will also beretained. The anchor (set of anchor trees) for what is now the priorversion of the storage index is made read-only. However, if the previousanchor includes multiple anchor trees, anchor merge will continue tooperate over time until a single anchor tree remains for that priorversion. Meanwhile, in the present version of the index, anchor treesmay be added to the anchor as index data for new writes is merged intothe anchor.

FIGS. 1-8 describe how the cloud storage system stores index data anduser data. FIG. 9 provides an overview of how index data for incomingwrites may be cached in a memory table before being written to deltapage file tables by a checkpoint process. These delta page file tablesare then merged into anchors. Because of this cache hierarchy, readrequests may need to consult each level of the index. FIG. 10 provides avery simple example of how write data and the corresponding indexentries can be visually represented.

FIGS. 11A and 11B depict very simple cross-merge operations where a newanchor tree is not created (FIG. 11A) or is created (FIG. 11B). Forillustration, the anchor tree is shown with a single index entry, whilethe delta page file table is shown with two index entries. Merging threeindex entries would not require the present disclosure; however, whenthere are hundreds, thousands, or even billions of entries, the presentdisclosure offers substantial improvements in performance and storageefficiency.

FIG. 12 is an example of an anchor merge in which the two anchor treesof FIG. 11B are merged into a single anchor tree. For a slight increasein complexity, FIG. 13 depicts writes for which the address rangesoverlap. FIGS. 14A and 14B depict how an anchor tree can be cross-mergedwith delta page file tables. When address ranges overlap, a processcalled range breakdown is performed in which the overlapping range ofaddresses is cut out from the earlier address range. FIG. 15 shows howrange breakdown can occur during an anchor merge.

FIG. 16 shows how a new anchor is created as a result of a snapshot. Thenew anchor inherits the same indices as the prior version of the anchor.However, all new writes will be merged into the new anchor. FIG. 17shows an anchor merge being performed on the prior anchor to makeretrieval of the snapshotted data more efficient. This may also make thestorage of the index more space-efficient. FIG. 17 also demonstrates howthe cross-merge of new write data is performed on the new anchor.

FIG. 18 illustrates how 2 anchor trees are merged following a snapshot.FIG. 19 demonstrates all 3 anchor trees being merged. In FIG. 18, thelast anchor tree is not merged with the first 2 anchor trees, whichcould be the result of a merge operation still being ongoing in thethird anchor tree. FIG. 20 is a functional block diagram of an exampletable server that may perform or control cross-merge operation shown inFIG. 21, anchor merge operation shown in FIG. 22, and garbage collectionshown in FIG. 23.

Overview

In a range-partitioned system, each partition has a unique key range andserves independent data. In other words, each partition is responsiblefor a contiguous key range that does not overlap with the key ranges ofother partitions. Each partition can be served by a different server, sothat partitions can be moved among a group of servers—referred to inthis disclosure as a “storage stamp”—to balance load. In addition,partitions can be dynamically split and merged to facilitate the loadbalancing. For example, a partition that has grown to be larger (interms of storage size or access rate) than average may be split intosmaller partitions so that the smaller partitions can be distributedacross the storage stamp.

The present disclosure is relevant to storage systems, such asdistributed (or, “cloud”) storage systems, that offer one or morestorage services. For example, binary large objects (blobs) can bestored using a “blob” storage service. In a block blob storage service,separate blocks of data form a single blob. The block blob service maybe used to store media files, for example, with each picture or moviebeing a separate blob.

In a page blob service, the blob is composed of data for a range ofaddresses. A page blob may be used as a virtual disk by a computer, suchas a virtual machine operating in the cloud. The range of addressesstored in the page blob may correspond to hard drive addresses presentedto the virtual machine, such as a range of logical block addresses(LBAs).

A file storage service may store individual files. The file storageservice may provide access to these files using a standardized protocol,such as the server message block (SMB) protocol and, more particularly,the common internet file system (CIFS) protocol.

Another storage service includes a table storage service, which is akey-value attribute store. The table storage service is schema-less andcan be used as a NoSQL data store. A further storage service is a queuestorage service in which numbered messages are stored. The queue servicemay be thought of as a subset of the table service in which the key issimply message number.

In various implementations, every storage service offered by thedistributed storage system has a backing index that tracks the userobjects and pointers associated with those objects. The index ispersisted (persistently stored) in a data structure referred to as afile table. For table and queue storage services, the user data may bestored within the file tables themselves. For block blob storageservices, the file tables may contain pointers to the blob data. Thefile table may be implemented as a persistent log-structured merge-tree(LSM tree) structure. In various implementations, file tables areimmutable so writing to one means generating a new one, largely re-usingthe previous pages on disk in the file table.

In various implementations, each storage stamp is made up of acollection of XTables. Each XTable logically encompasses a set ofpartitions. These partitions are range-partitioned, where each partitionserves a distinct key range (from KEY_MIN to KEY_MAX) and all of thepartitions in the set cover the full KEY_MIN to KEY_MAX key range. Pageblobs may be stored in the XBIobObjects XTable, and sets of files may bestored in the XFiles XTable.

Each partition is associated with a set of storage streams in whichindex and user data is stored. A stream is an append-only data structurethat stores data into storage servers, described below. For example,each partition is assigned a unique name and streams associated withthat partition are named with the partition service name. For example,partition1.blobdata includes data for a block blob server,partition1.pagedata contains data for the page blob service,partition1.ftchk and partition1.data contain the file table data, etc.Each stream is stored as a set of extents that is served by a set ofextent node servers. In some implementations, each extent is a fixedlength, such as between 0.25 GB and 3 GB. The unit of writing in astream is an extent and therefore the unit of garbage collection is anextent. Because the stream is append-only, to update an extent, a newextent is written and the old extent becomes obsolete.

The page blob service and file storage service may use a constructcalled an anchor to store information about the page ranges of each pageblog and each set of files. An anchor may be implemented as an LSM treethat is version-aware and range-aware. Page range rows are stored in theanchor to represent page ranges. The page range rows may contain aversion number, page range start, page range end, error detection (suchas CRC, or cyclic redundancy check), and a data pointer to the data (ora special constant for “no data”). The [page range start, page rangeend) represents the range, where the page range start is inclusive andthe page range end is exclusive.

In a typical key comparison of any row, columns are comparedcolumn-by-column, but with range-aware keys like page ranges, the pagerange start and page range end have to be considered together whencomparing two page range rows. If there is overlap in two page rangerows, range chopping is performed to generate subsets of ranges based onwhich row is newer and which is older. For versioning, version numbersmonotonically increase with each snapshot. The anchor data structure aswell as overall iteration logic can support looking at a restricted setof the data with filtering. The version is also part of the key andhelps indicate which page range is newer or older across versions of apage blob or set of files.

Each partition processes read, write, and delete requests. Every deletecreates data that is no longer valid, which may be referred to as“garbage.” Writes also can create garbage if they overwrite anypreviously valid data. Additionally, index management operations alsocreate garbage. For example, file table pages that are no longer validare considered garbage. Further, index management operations, such asmerging anchor trees, also create garbage.

Each partition may regularly scan the index and write out occupancyinformation for later garbage collection. This occupancy informationcontains a list of extents—for example, for block blobs the extents willbe the ones in the .blobdata stream—and for each extent contains thevalid occupied byte count. For example, where E0, E1, etc. are extentIDs: {E0: 1 GB, E1: 0.2 GB, E2: 0 GB, E3: 3 GB, . . . }. Thisinformation is written to a <partition name>.occupancy stream when theindex scan is completed. The same process which scans the index to writethese occupancies out is the same process which does garbagecollection—they are batched together for performance.

Garbage collection scans the index and, for each object, inspects everydata pointer. If the data pointer points to an extent marked for garbagecollection, the garbage collection process will rewrite that extent andupdate the corresponding data pointer. At the end of the garbagecollection process, garbage collection tells the stream with amanagement API (application programming interface) to remove the extentsthat were rewritten from the corresponding stream. In the background,the stream removes the extents from the corresponding extent nodeservers, which completes the garbage collection as the disk space isthen free to be reused.

When user writes occur to a page blob, such as a put page or clear page,the writes are written to the log and persisted in memory to a memorytable. If a partition moves due to load balancing, it will replay thelog to insert the update back into the memory table. A process namedcheckpoint regularly runs based on size, time, log size, memory tablesize, etc. thresholds. Checkpoint takes the most recent data for anygiven row in the memory tables and writes that to a file table structureon disk.

For page ranges, the structures created by checkpoint are called deltapage file tables, which are temporary objects. If a user query for apage range, such as a get blob or get page ranges operation, isreceived, the full index is queried. The full index includes the memorytable, delta page file tables, and the anchor for that blob, with thatbeing the most recent index order as well.

The present disclosure describes how multiple anchor trees can be usedfor a single page blob or set of files, when and how additional anchortrees are added, and when anchor trees are combined. This concept isreferred to as a staging anchor. Without the staging anchor concept, ananchor lock is used to synchronize different operations. The anchor lockis a simple lock that contains a standard section as well as somemetadata about the type of operation and when it was acquired. There arethree kinds of operations: cross-merge, garbage collection, and bulletcross-merge (triggered by a copy blob request). The Anchor lock has thefollowing logic:

-   -   Bullet cross-merge blocks cross-merge and garbage collection    -   Cross-merge and garbage collection block each other    -   Bullet cross-merge has to wait for an ongoing cross-merge    -   Bullet cross-merge can steal the lock from garbage collection

Since anchors are versioned and the versioning aspect of any blob isprotected by the anchor lock, the granularity of an anchor lock is notper version of a blob but per overall blob or blob family. In otherwords, for a blob with 10 versions, there is still just one anchor lock.More details about these operations below.

Cross-merge is the process that regularly looks for delta page filetables, iterates over all of the rows in them, and for all of the rowsfor the same page blob or set of files, merges those into theappropriate anchor for that blob or set of files. Cross-merge does thisversion by version. For example, a given page blob can have updates inthe delta page file tables for three different versions, V0, V1, and V2.Cross-merge will first see the first V0 row, then find the appropriateanchor to merge into, and iterate and merge all V0 rows from the deltapage file tables into the anchor by writing a new anchor tree andcommitting that anchor tree.

Then cross-merge will see the first V1 row, inherit the anchor treegenerated from writing the V0 anchor, and repeat the process for all V1rows to generate a new anchor tree and commit the new anchor tree. Theprocess is similar for V2. This results in three different anchors,where V1 builds on V0 and V2 builds on V1. These three anchors arehierarchical and share data. Before staging anchor, there is only oneanchor tree, which will grow bigger over time, eventually reaching somestable point based on the total number of page ranges. In somesituations, a single anchor tree can grow to several tens of GBs insize. With only a single anchor tree, cross-merge must pay the cost ofrewriting full pages even if there is very little change—that is, hugewrite amplification. For example, merging a 64 MB delta page file tableinto a 64 GB anchor can lead to 1024× write amplification.

With staging anchor, cross-merge may avoid merging into the base, orroot, anchor tree. If there is only one anchor tree, cross-merge willgenerate a second anchor tree. If there are two or more anchor trees,cross-merge will look at the last anchor tree and undergo selectionlogic based on the last anchor tree's size to determine whether a newanchor tree should be generated. If there are any pending operations onthe last anchor tree, cross-merge will generate a new anchor treeregardless. Cross-merge then adds a merge operation to the pendingoperation list on the last anchor tree (which may have just beencreated).

If there are too many anchor trees, cross-merge will also trigger anchormerge concurrently. This approach essentially removes the need forsynchronization so that in various implementations the anchor lock isomitted with cross-merge. The remaining synchronization may be in-memorymetadata about which operations are pending on the anchor trees.Managing this metadata may be done with simple locking—with very littleoperations under the lock—so that there are no blocking or concurrencyissues on the anchor operations.

Bullet cross-merge is essentially a special cross-merge that is specialin two ways. First, in the anchor lock synchronization described above,bullet cross-merge is allowed to steal the lock from garbage collection(where a regular cross-merge cannot). Second, it is special because itis happening in response to a copy blob operation. Both the source andthe destination of a copy blob operation may trigger a bulletcross-merge. Because the bullet cross-merge is invoked for a copy bloboperation, it is specific to only that blob. In other words, the bulletcross-merge is a cross-merge for a single blob in the delta page filetables as compared to the regular cross-merge, which works on range rowsfor all blobs in the delta page file tables.

When bullet cross-merge runs for a blob, special metadata is maintainedin memory and in persistent storage (such as on solid-state or spinningdisk) indicating that a merge was already performed for a certain blobfor certain delta page file tables. The cons of being limited to asingle anchor tree, and the corresponding benefits of the staging anchorprocess, are similar between the cross-merge and the bullet cross-merge.With staging anchor, bullet cross-merge no longer needs to steal thelock from garbage collection because a new anchor tree can be generatedinstead.

Because bullet cross-merge is invoked on behalf of copy blob, a useroperation, the threshold above which a new anchor tree will be generatedis decreased. In other words, the bullet cross-merge is more likely togenerate a new anchor tree, which reduces latency since merging with anexisting tree is slower than writing a new tree.

Anchor merge is an operation introduced to handle merging differentanchor trees into a single anchor tree. Anchor merge is primarilytriggered by cross-merge and garbage collection, but a regular check canbe performed to see if blobs in the partition should trigger anchormerge. Additionally, user operations may occasionally check to seewhether anchor merge should be performed. Anchor merge works by firstsumming up the size and count of the anchor trees, from the most recentanchor tree to the oldest anchor tree, until a certain threshold ofeither size or count is reached. This analysis stops prior to reachingan anchor tree already occupied by another anchor tree operation, suchas garbage collection or cross-merge. The anchor merge analysis alsoevaluates whether write amplification from a prospective would exceed athreshold, and may prevent the anchor merge if so.

If the anchor merge analysis finds a valid set of tables to merge, itreserves those anchor trees to anchor merge by marking them in memoryand begins the anchor merge itself. Anchor merge merges different anchortrees into one anchor tree, generating a new anchor tree. When the mergeis complete, the anchor trees that were merged are replaced in memorywith the single new anchor tree. This lowers the anchor tree count forthat blob version and compacts that blob version's page range index.

Without staging anchor, garbage collection of page ranges works by, foreach version of each blob in the partition, iterating through the anchorand, for every page range, evaluating whether the corresponding datapointer is contained in a list of extents marked for garbage collection.If so, the data for that page range is rewritten and the updated pagerange is maintained in an in-memory list.

After iterating through all page ranges for a given version of a blob,the anchor can be updated by forming an imitation delta page file tablefrom the list of updated page ranges and triggering a cross-merge on theimitation delta page file table. This updates the anchor tree to containthe new page ranges with updated data pointers. All of the garbagecollection work for all versions of a given blob is done while holdingthe anchor lock. If at any time, garbage collection loses the anchorlock to bullet cross-merge, garbage collection will quit and retry.After a certain number of failed retries, garbage collection will moveonto the next blob, and any extents that could not be garbage collecteddue to such a case are excluded from being garbage collected until thenext round of garbage collection.

With staging anchor, garbage collection may be restricted to just thefirst/root/base anchor. Because cross-merge and bullet cross-mergealways work on the second or greater anchor, garbage collection wouldthen never be blocked by cross-merge or bullet cross-merge.Additionally, in order to have more data eligible for garbagecollection, garbage collection may check if an anchor merge should betriggered on each version of a blob before doing garbage collectionwork. The thresholds anchor merge uses when invoked by garbagecollection may be different than when anchor merge is invoked otherwise.

In implementations where garbage collection would invoke anchor merge asa first step, there is no problem with garbage collection having to waitfor an existing anchor merge to complete. In other words, garbagecollection is effectively not blocked by any other anchor operation. Anadditional change to garbage collection for staging anchor is that, fora specific blob version, garbage collection will iterate over the anchortrees that are not the root anchor tree and exclude those anchor trees'extents from garbage collection. In this way, staging anchor extents areonly garbage-collected when they are merged into the root anchor. Sincegarbage collection has a natural relationship to the age of the data,this may generally be advantageous. Anchor merge may also have atime-based trigger so that staging anchor data will not live for toolong to the point where garbage collection is held up from garbagecollecting certain data.

An ordered list of pointers to anchor trees may be maintained in astructure called an anchor. File table pages store multiple rows for apartition of an XTable. For a page blob XTable, each row may correspondto a version of a specific page blob and include a pointer to the anchorfor that page blob version or the anchor itself. In variousimplementations, the row may include the anchor itself until the size ofthe anchor exceeds a predetermined sizes threshold, at which point theanchor is moved out of the row and replaced by a pointer to the newlocation of the anchor.

Whenever any page range query/iteration is requested, the anchor pointerfrom the blob row is read and, from there, the staging anchor trees arealso read. An iterator may be constructed for each anchor tree. This maynot require any changes to the iterator code used before development ofthe staging anchor, which worked on the single anchor tree.

In the XTable for page blobs and sets of files, there may be one or morecolumns for metadata. These columns may be used to indicate whetherstaging anchor is enabled for the row (for example, for a specificversion of a blob). In various implementations, all versions of a blobmay need to have the same setting for whether staging anchor is enabled.In various implementations, one of the metadata columns may be a set ofbinary flags; one of the binary flags may indicate (such as with abinary one) that staging anchor is enabled for the row. Allowing staginganchor to be enabled per-row may enhance upgradeability and may haveperformance benefits.

Because staging anchor may have fundamental logical differencesregarding, for example, how locking works for a partition, a partitionmay need to be updated to support staging anchor. In addition to schemachanges to support the multiple anchor trees, the partition code isupgraded. Each partition can be upgraded individually—in other words, asingle table server may manage multiple partitions, some for whichstaging anchor is enabled and some for which staging anchor is notenabled.

A copy blob operation may cross partitions, complicating an incrementalupgrade. Copying from a partition with staging anchor disabled to apartition with staging anchor enabled is fine. Similarly, if bothpartitions are in the same state, it is fine. But in the case of copyingfrom a partition with staging anchor enabled to a partition with staginganchor disabled, an incompatibility may exist. To address this issue,the copy may be failed or suspended and an urgent partition reload istriggered on the destination partition. The copy operation will thenresume once the reload completes. Since a partition reload may be veryfast, such as on the order of seconds, the copy operation may experienceonly a minor increase in latency.

Client and Server

Below are simplistic examples of a distributed computing environment inwhich the systems and methods of the present disclosure can beimplemented. Throughout the description, references to terms such asservers, client devices, applications and so on are for illustrativepurposes only. The terms server and client device are to be understoodbroadly as representing computing devices with one or more processorsand memory configured to execute machine readable instructions. Theterms application and computer program are to be understood broadly asrepresenting machine readable instructions executable by the computingdevices.

FIG. 1 shows a simplified example of a distributed computing system 100.The distributed computing system 100 includes a distributedcommunications system 110, one or more client devices 120-1, 120-2, . .. , and 120-M (collectively, client devices 120), and one or moreservers 130-1, 130-2, . . . , and 130-M (collectively, servers 130). Mand N are integers greater than or equal to one. The distributedcommunications system 110 may include a local area network (LAN), a widearea network (WAN) such as the Internet, or other type of network. Theclient devices 120 and the servers 130 may be located at differentgeographical locations and communicate with each other via thedistributed communications system 110. The client devices 120 and theservers 130 connect to the distributed communications system 110 usingwireless and/or wired connections.

The client devices 120 may include smartphones, personal digitalassistants (PDAs), tablets, laptop computers, personal computers (PCs),etc. The servers 130 may provide multiple services to the client devices120. For example, the servers 130 may execute software applicationsdeveloped by one or more vendors. The server 130 may host multipledatabases that are relied on by the software applications in providingservices to users of the client devices 120.

A cloud storage system 140 stores data on behalf of one or more of theservers 130 and/or on behalf of one or more of the client devices 120.This data may be used as a shared storage repository by, for example,the servers 130. Further, the data may be used to communicate among, forexample, the servers 130. Further, the cloud storage system 140 may beimplemented by one or more servers configured similarly to the servers130.

FIG. 2 shows a simplified example of the client device 120-1. The clientdevice 120-1 may typically include a central processing unit (CPU) orprocessor 150, one or more input devices 152 (e.g., a keypad, touchpad,mouse, touchscreen, etc.), a display subsystem 154 including a display156, a network interface 158, memory 160, and bulk storage 162.

The network interface 158 connects the client device 120-1 to thedistributed computing system 100 via the distributed communicationssystem 110. For example, the network interface 158 may include a wiredinterface (for example, an Ethernet interface) and/or a wirelessinterface (for example, a Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, near field communication(NFC), or other wireless interface). The memory 160 may include volatileor nonvolatile memory, cache, or other type of memory. The bulk storage162 may include flash memory, a magnetic hard disk drive (HDD), andother bulk storage devices.

The processor 150 of the client device 120-1 executes an operatingsystem (OS) 164 and one or more client applications 166. The clientapplications 166 include an application that accesses the servers 130via the distributed communications system 110.

FIG. 3 shows a simplified example of the server 130-1. The server 130-1typically includes one or more CPUs or processors 170, a networkinterface 178, memory 180, and bulk storage 182. In someimplementations, the server 130-1 may be a general-purpose server andinclude one or more input devices 172 (e.g., a keypad, touchpad, mouse,and so on) and a display subsystem 174 including a display 176.

The network interface 178 connects the server 130-1 to the distributedcommunications system 110. For example, the network interface 178 mayinclude a wired interface (e.g., an Ethernet interface) and/or awireless interface (e.g., a Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, near field communication(NFC), or other wireless interface). The memory 180 may include volatileor nonvolatile memory, cache, or other type of memory. The bulk storage182 may include flash memory, one or more magnetic hard disk drives(HDDs), or other bulk storage devices.

The processor 170 of the server 130-1 executes an operating system (OS)184 and one or more server applications 186, which may be housed in avirtual machine hypervisor or containerized. The server applications 186may access data, such as block blob or page blob data, from the cloudstorage system 140. In some implementations, cloud storage system 140may include one or more servers configured as shown in FIG. 3, in whichthe server applications 186 may include operations, such as indexmanagement, performed by the cloud storage system 140. The bulk storage182 may maintain one or more databases 188 that store data, such asindex data and user data, used by the server applications 186 to performrespective functions.

Distributed Storage System

In FIG. 4, the cloud storage system 140 (also referred to as adistributed storage system) may include multiple regions 200-1, 200-2, .. . and 200-n (collectively, regions 200). The regions 200 may belocated in separate geographical locations (such as in different areasof a country or in different countries) to provide greater reliabilityin the face of regional failures.

In each of the regions 200, collections of servers referred to asstorage stamps (or, stamps) provide the processing and storagecapabilities for the cloud storage system 140. For example, in theregion 200-1, storage stamp 204-1, 204-2, . . . and storage stamp 204-p(storage stamps 204) are included. Each of the storage stamps 204 mayinclude one or more racks of servers. For example, in FIG. 4, thestorage stamp 204-1 is shown with racks 208-1, 208-2, . . . and 208-q.Data may be replicated, or mirrored, within one of the storage stamps204, between the storage stamps 204, and across the regions 200. Forexample, based on a customer's agreement with the cloud storage system140, the extent and geographical reach of replication may becontractually determined.

In FIG. 5, the storage stamp 204-1 is graphically illustrated by asingle rack including many servers. The storage stamp 204-1 may storedata for some or all of the services offered by the cloud storage system140. In other words, table, queue, and blob services may all be offeredby each individual storage stamp, including the storage stamp 204-1.

Each different storage service may be indexed by a separate table. Thetop-level index table for each service is named “XTable” to distinguishfrom other tables within the architecture. For example, a block blobstorage service is indexed by a block blob XTable 240, while a page blobstorage service is indexed by a page blob XTable 250.

Additional XTables are stored by the storage stamp 204-1 if thoseservices are offered by the cloud storage system 140. For example,additional XTables may include a table XTable and a file XTable.Further, XTables that may not be visible to users may be stored, such asan account XTable and a billing XTable. The account XTable may keeptrack of the accounts established by customers within the storage stamp204-1 and may include access and authorization data. The billing XTablemay include billing information that tracks per-account usage forbilling purposes.

Page Blob XTable

In FIG. 6, example columns of the page blob XTable 250 are shown. Eachcustomer may have one or more accounts. Within each account, there maybe one or more groups, referred to as containers. Each container holdsone or more blobs. The blobs may be versioned, with a snapshot causingthe creation of a new version and the marking of the prior version asread only. For each blob version, there is a pointer to the anchor thatmaintains the index for that blob version.

The anchor may include an ordered list of pointers to anchor trees. Theordered list will have at least one anchor tree (the first, or root,tree) and may have more as a result of cross-merges. In otherimplementations, the ordered list of anchor tree pointers may be storedin one or more columns of the page blob XTable 250 itself.

Example indications show which columns form the row key for the pageblob XTable 250 and which columns form the partition key of the pageblob XTable 250. The row key uniquely identifies the row within the pageblob XTable 250. In other words, there are no two rows in the page blobXTable 250 that have the same values for all four columns that are partof the row key. The partition key establishes the granularity ofpartitioning. In other words, only columns that are part of thepartition key are used to determine how to split (or, partition) theXTable into separate partitions.

The columns shown for the page blob XTable 250 are examples only and maybe a subset of the full set of columns in an actual implementation.Further, the columns may be named differently and stored in any order.The columns of the page blob XTable 250, as well as the definition ofwhich columns form the row key and which columns form the partition key,are referred to as the schema of the page blob XTable 250.

In this example, the first column shown is account name. Each customermay have multiple storage accounts. The customer may use differentstorage accounts for different purposes or for different groups of theirown customers. In some implementations, a customer may need to createadditional storage accounts if a limit imposed by the cloud storagesystem is reached. For example, the cloud storage system may impose aspecific limit, such as 500 TB, on the amount of storage associated witha storage account. Because a storage account is not split across stamps,limiting the size of storage accounts prevents a single storage accountfrom becoming too large a proportion of a stamp and making loadbalancing across stamps more difficult.

In some implementations, the account name includes a unique identifierof the customer as well as a name provided by the customer for theaccount. In other implementations, the account names are specifiedentirely by the customers but must be globally unique. Within a storageaccount, there can be multiple blob containers, which are identified bythe container name column. Within each container, there can be multipleblobs, each identified with a different name, corresponding to the blobname column.

The present contents of a blob may be preserved for the future byrequesting a snapshot. Each snapshot corresponds to a different versionand therefore the version column identifies which snapshot of the blobis referred to in that row of the page blob XTable 250. An anchorpointer column (or columns) points to the location of that blobversion's anchor data structure within the storage stamp 204-1. Theanchor data structure may, in turn, be a list of pointers to anchortrees. The anchor trees identify where the actual user data is stored.For example, the anchor pointer may span three columns: extend ID,offset within the extent, and size of the anchor data structure. Inother implementations, the anchor pointer column(s) may actually includethe list of anchor trees instead of just a pointer to the list of anchortrees.

The page blob XTable 250 may also include one or more metadata columns(though only one is shown) with additional information for the row.Although the page blob XTable 250 is shown in FIG. 6 in its logical formas a simple two-dimensional table, the page blob XTable 250 is actuallyphysically stored in separate partitions. And as described in moredetail below, those separate partitions are not simply smaller2-dimensional tables.

In FIG. 6, the partition key is shown to encompass the account name, thecontainer name, and the blob name. The page blob XTable 250 is split, orpartitioned, such that all of the rows sharing a same partition key arestored in the same partition. For manageability and performance reasons,partitions may be defined by contiguous ranges of the partition key.

For a simplistic illustration of partitioning, example values are shownfor account name and container name. In reality, the account name wouldgenerally be much more complex and is certainly not constrained to asingle capital letter. Similarly, the container name is not restrictedto an integer and is not necessarily sequential. In the page blob XTable250, there are multiple account names. These account names may beaccounts for separate users. In other words, data from different usersis stored together within the page blob XTable 250. This allows loadbalancing across users so that if one user is heavily using data, thatuser can be combined in a partition with less heavy users.

In this simplistic example, Partition 1 includes rows from the page blobXTable 250 whose account name and container name vary from A1 up to B294(in this simple example, blob name and version are ignored). Partition 2includes C1 through M1. Partition 3 includes N1 through Y2. In reality,the partitions may be defined with one end of the range being open(exclusive) with the other end of the range being closed (inclusive).

As suggested above, the page blob XTable 250 is not simply stored asthree separate two-dimensional tables, one for each partition. Instead,the rows of each partition are stored as a tree data structure. Forexample, a multi-level B-tree or B+ tree may be used to store eachpartition. For Partition 1, a root index page 300 points to subtreesthat divide up the partition. For example, the root index page 300includes entries indicating upper ends of ranges of the row key. In thisexample, the first entry of the index page 300 points to a subtreeincluding all rows up to A4, the next entry in the index page 300 pointsto a subtree encompassing rows greater than A4 up to A7, while the finalentry in the index page 300 includes rows up through B294.

FIG. 6 shows a single index level, where the pages below the index page300 are child (or, data) pages that include the actual data of the pageblob XTable 250. In various implementations, some or all file tables mayhave additional levels of indexing such that the partition is subdividedinto more and more subtrees before reaching the index data pages.

In FIG. 6, index data page 1 304-1, index data page 2 304-2 and indexdata page x 304-x (index data pages 304) are shown. As indicated byindex page 300, the index data page 304-1 includes entries up throughrows A4, including row A1, row A2, row A3, and row A4. Note that forsimplicity of this illustration, the row is being identified simply bythe first two columns. In reality, the row would need to be specified byall of the columns forming the row key. In other words, there willlikely be many rows whose account name is “A” and whose container nameis “1”.

Each of the pages of the Partition 1 file table (that is, the index page300 and the index data pages 304) is stored as a block in an extent.Further, the anchor trees referenced by the anchor pointer column(s) ofthe page blob XTable 250 point to one or more blocks in one or moreextents that store the actual page blob data.

For purposes of illustration, a single stream 320 is shown, whichincludes Extent 1 324-1 through Extent y 324-y. The final extent in thestream 320, which in this case is Extent y 324-y, is append only. Inother words, blocks can be added to Extent y 324-y, but existing blockscannot be modified or deleted. All previous extents within the stream320, which includes Extent 1 324-1, are immutable (unchangeable).

Therefore, in order to modify any of the data in Block 1, Block 2, Block3, or Block 4 of Extent 1 324-1, a new extent, such as Extent y 324-y,must be used to store the data, making the old data within Extent 1324-1 no longer valid. Data that is no longer valid may be referred toas garbage. Extents are uniquely identified with an ID, and each blockwithin the extent may be uniquely specified by the extent ID, the offsetof the block within the extent, and the length of the block. Asdescribed in more detail below, the file table pages may be stored inone stream, while page blob data is stored in another stream.

Storage Stamp

In FIG. 7, the storage stamp 204-1 is shown with functional blocks. Afront-end layer 400 receives data access requests, including readrequests, write requests, and delete requests. These data accessrequests are processed and provided to a partition layer 404, whichincludes table servers 408-1, 408-2, and 408-3 (collectively, tableservers 408). Each one of the table servers 408 handles one or morepartitions, and the assignment of partitions to the table servers 408 iscoordinated by a table master server 412. The front-end layer 400therefore provides the processed data access requests to the tableservers 408 depending on which partition the data access requestpertains to.

The table servers 408 maintain indices for partitions, such as one ormore partitions of the block XTable 240 and one or more partitions ofthe queue XTable 250. The table servers 408 may perform indexmanagement, garbage collection, reading, and writing.

The underlying data used by the table servers 408, including index dataand user data, is stored by a stream layer 420. The stream layer 420 mayunderstand only storing blocks within extents within streams, with nosemantic understanding of the contents or interrelationship of thestreams. Instead, the stream layer 420 is simply responsible forensuring accurate and available storage of information.

Data stored into the stream layer 420 may be organized as sets ofstreams. For example, the file tables of FIG. 6 may be stored in onestream, while the actual blob data may be stored in a different stream.Each stream is an ordered sequence of extents. Each extent is stored byan extent node server, three of which are shown in the stream layer for420 of FIG. 7: extent node server 1 424-1, extend node server 2 424-2,and extent node server 3 424-3. A stream manager 428 maintains anordered list of the extents within each stream and determines which ofthe extent node servers 424 store which extents.

Pointer Hierarchy

FIG. 8 shows further details of an example implementation of the XTablestorage architecture shown in FIG. 6. In the example of FIG. 8, acustomer forms a blob read request by specifying a domain name. Thedomain name is based on the account name of the blob of interest. Thisdomain name is registered in the public DNS and therefore resolves to aninternet protocol (IP) address of the stamp. For an example, the IPaddress may be of the front end layer 400 of the storage stamp 204-1.

All of the accounts for a single stamp may resolve to the same IPaddress or, for load balancing purposes or other reasons, the differentaccounts may resolve to different IP addresses of the stamp. Because thedomain name is account-specific, the account can be shifted to adifferent stamp and the domain name updated to balance loads betweenstamps.

In various implementations, the cloud storage system 140 may have apredefined domain name, where the account name is prepended to create asubdomain. As one example only, for the AZURE storage system fromMicrosoft Corp., the predefined domain name may beblob.core.windows.net. In this example, an account name of “A”corresponds to a subdomain of a.blob.core.windows.net. As a result, apublic DNS server resolves a.blob.core.windows.net to a specific IPaddress for the stamp (a DNS record is referenced at 440).

In this example, the blob read request specifies row A3 (as above, forsimplicity, the blob name and version number columns are ignored). Theblob read request is transmitted to the IP address specified by theaccount-name-specific domain name. The blob read request is provided tothe table master server 412, which identifies which partitioncorresponds to the blob read request. For example only, the blob readrequest may include a uniform resource locator (URL) in which thepartition name is encoded.

The table master server may have a mapping 450 cached in memory frompartition name to a corresponding metadata stream of the partition on aspecific table server. The persistent record of the mapping 450 may bestored in the stream layer 420.

The metadata stream for a partition, such as metadata stream 460 forPartition 1, includes a file table record with a stream pointer to acorresponding file table metadata page 470. Each time the file tablemetadata page 470 is updated (specifically, a copy of the file tablemetadata page 470 is written with updated data), a new file table recordis created in the metadata stream 460 to point to the new file tablemetadata page. The prior file table record in the metadata stream 460 isthen obsolete (an example of an obsolete file table record is shown inFIG. 8 with cross-hatching). The metadata stream 460 also includes oneor more schema definitions, which may define the schema used for indexpages, such as the root index page 300, and for index data pages, suchas the index data page 304-1.

The file table metadata page 470 includes a pointer to the root indexpage 300 of the index for Partition 1. In addition to the root indexpage pointer, the file table metadata page 470 may include a Bloomfilter. Data written to the cloud storage system 140 may be placed in amemory table or a row data cache before or in addition to being writteninto the blob stream. A Bloom filter may be maintained for eachcheckpoint to indicate if the row being accessed may be located in thecheckpoint. This allows skipping checkpoints that definitely do not havethat row. The file table metadata page 470 may further store (or pointto) a record of extent occupancy for garbage collection purposes.

The root index page 300 was previously described in FIG. 6. Although inthis example there is only one level of index, practical implementationsmay have multiple index levels and the number of levels may vary betweenpartitions. Further, the number of levels may vary over time for aspecific partition. If the blob read request specifies a row with a keythat is less than or equal to A4, the index page 300 points to the indexdata page 304-1, which was also shown in FIG. 6. For this example,assume that row A3 was requested by the blob read request.

The index data page 304-1 includes the row data for a series of rows ofthe page blob XTable 250. In this simple example, a row (whichcorresponds to a specific version of a specific page blob) identified byA3 points to an anchor list 480. The anchor list 480 includes an orderedlist of one or more anchor trees. As cross-merge creates trees, thetrees may be added to the anchor list 480. Similarly, when anchor mergecombines trees, the anchor list 480 is reduced. In variousimplementations, the anchor list 480 may be constrained to a certainupper bound of anchor trees. In such a case, the anchor list 480 mayinclude a data structure with empty locations (filled with ignoredvalues) for the maximum number of trees, and as trees are added, thatdata is replaced with actual pointers to anchor trees.

In FIG. 8, the anchor list 480 is shown with three entries pointing toanchor tree 484-0, anchor tree 484-1, and anchor tree 484-2(collectively, anchor trees 484). The extents where the user data isstored are represented graphically by a stream 488, and the anchor trees484 include data pointers to the user data in the stream 488. Additionaldetails will be discussed below beginning with FIG. 10.

Index Hierarchy

In FIG. 9, incoming writes are shown as having user data and index data(the address ranges to which the user data corresponds). The index datais written to a memory table 504, while the user data is written to ablob stream 508. As the memory table 504 accumulates index data, acheckpoint operation may be performed to create delta page file tables.In FIG. 9, delta page file tables 512-0, 512-1 . . . 512-p (delta pagefile tables 512) are shown. A cross-merge adds the delta page filetables 512 to the latest anchor for the corresponding blob.

For a given blob, there may be q+1 versions as a result of taking qsnapshots. FIG. 9 shows blob anchor 516-0 for version 0 of the blobanchor, 516-1 for version 1 of the blob anchor, and 516-q for version qof the blob anchor. The blob anchors for version 0 up through versionq−1 are all immutable. In other words, any new writes are merged intothe version q blob anchor 516-q.

Because index data may be stored in the memory table 504, the delta pagefile tables 512, or the blob anchors 516, a query iterator 540 may needto consult each of the memory table 504, the delta page file tables 512,and the blob anchors 516, in that order, to determine where the latestdata is stored. The storage locations are provided to the blob stream508 for retrieval of the read data.

In various implementations, a snapshot may be taken before all of thedelta page file tables 512 have been cross-merged into the latest blobanchor. In such a case, following the snapshot, additional cross mergesare performed for the prior blob anchor version until no page ranges ofthat version exist in the memory table 504 or the delta page file tables512. In other implementations, a special form of cross-merge, called abullet cross-merge, may force all of the address ranges for a certainblob to be merged from the delta page file tables 512 into thecorresponding blob anchor. This can be performed prior to taking thesnapshot so that no remaining cross-merging is necessary for the priorblob anchors.

Example Writes

In FIG. 10, a few small example writes are shown for illustration. Datafor addresses 0-2048 is stored in extent 604-1. A corresponding indexrow is then created where the page range start is 0, the page range endis 2048, and the data pointer points to extent 1 with an offset of 0 anda length of 2048. Although the range from 0 to 2048 would appear toinclude 2049 addresses, the convention used here has an inclusive pagerange start and exclusive page range end. In other words, the datawritten corresponds to addresses 0 through 2047. The first index entry,which may be referred to as a range row, is labeled with 608-1.

Next, data for 2048-4096 is written. This data is stored in, to use afictitious number for illustration, extent 29 (604-29). A range row608-2 is created for the page range starting at 2048 and ending at 4096,indicating that the data is stored in extent 29 with an offset of 0 anda length of 2048. Next, data for 4096-6144 is written. The data isstored in, using another fictitious number, extent 87 (604-87). Acorresponding range row 608-3 indicates the page range from 4096 to 6144can be found at extent 87 with an offset of 0 and a length of 2048.

In FIG. 11A, assume that the range row 608-1 has already been merged inanchor 640-0 to anchor tree 644-1. Further, range rows 608-2 and 608-3are part of a delta page file table 648. A cross-merge operation mayupdate anchor tree 644-1 to be anchor tree 644-2. The anchor tree 644-2now includes all three of the range rows.

In FIG. 11B, an alternative outcome of cross-merging maintains anchortree 644-1 as is and adds a second anchor tree 652. This second anchortree 652 may be created because the first anchor tree 644-1 has acurrently pending operation, such as garbage collection. In a practicalimplementation, an anchor tree with millions of page ranges may cause somuch write amplification upon a merge that it is more efficient to firstcreate a second tree with no write amplification and only merge with theroot tree at a later time.

In FIG. 12, the eventual merge, called an anchor merge, of the firstanchor tree 644-1 and the second anchor tree 652 results in a new firstanchor tree 644-3. Note that the anchor tree 644-3 may be identical tothe anchor tree 644-2. The process of arriving at the same anchor tree,however, is different.

Overlapping Range Writes

In FIG. 13, a more complicated scenario is shown in which writes haveoverlapping address ranges. Beginning with a write for data in addresses0-2048, the user data is stored in extent 704-1. A range row 708-1indicates that the page range from 0-2048 is stored in extent 1 with anoffset of 0 and a length of 2048.

Next, a write for addresses 1024-2048 is performed with data beingstored in the fictitious extent 71 (704-71). In this example, extent 71(704-71) already includes data 712 so the data 716 for addresses1024-2048 is stored subsequent to the data 712. Therefore, a range row708-2 indicates that the page range from 1024-2048 is stored at extent71 with an offset of 1024 and a length 1024.

Next, a write of data for 1024-1536 is performed. The data is stored infictitious extent 124 (704-124). Therefore, a resulting range row 708-3indicates that the page range starting at 1024 and ending at 1536 isstored at extent 124 with an offset of 0 and a length of 512. Forillustration only, the third write arrived with data only for 1024-1032.This may be below a level of granularity accepted by the cloud storagesystem or expected of a virtual disk. Therefore, the size of the datamay be rounded up to a certain minimum size, such as 512 bytes.

In some implementations, the storage system will take the new eightbytes and combine them with the remaining 504 bytes from the data 716when writing into extent 124 (704-124). In other implementations, theoperating system of the virtual machine that is sending data to thevirtual disk will be relied on to send data in 512 byte increments.

If data is sent in 512 byte increments, the actual values stored in therange rows 708 may be divided by 512. This may save 9 bits for eachvalue stored. In other words, a page range start and end of 1024 and1536 can physically be stored as 2 and 3, respectively.

Because the second write includes new data for 1024-2048, a portion ofthe data from the first write, stored in extent 1 704-1, is nowobsolete. The data that is obsolete is indicated at 720 withcross-hatching for illustration. However, while this data is obsolete,the extent 704-1 is read-only and therefore the obsolete data 720 hasnot been overwritten or otherwise marked as obsolete. Instead, thesecond range row 708-2 is consulted to identify that newer data isavailable in extent 71 704-71.

Similarly, because new data has been received for addresses 1024-1536,data 724 in extent 71 (704-71) is now obsolete. Because the range rows708-1 and 708-2 point to data that is partially invalid, when mergingtwo or more of the range rows 708, the portions of data that are validneed to be separated from the portions that have been superseded.

In FIG. 14A, a blob anchor 740 includes anchor tree 744, which includesthe range row 708-1 of FIG. 13. Further, delta page file tables 748 and752 include the range rows 708-2 and 708-3, respectively, of FIG. 13.When the delta page file tables 748 and 752 are cross-merged into theanchor tree 744, an anchor tree 744-2 results. Note that the length ofthe data in extent 71 is now listed as being only 512 bytes long andthat the length of the data in extent 1 is now listed as being only 1024bytes long. This is as a result of the range breakdown, in which rangerows are adjusted to point to the subsets of data that are still valid.

In FIG. 14B, alternatively, the cross-merge may result in a secondanchor tree 760 being created. For example, the second anchor tree 760may be created because an operation on the anchor tree 744 was ongoingor to avoid write amplification caused by adding range rows to theanchor tree 744. Creating the anchor tree 760 involved range breakdownbecause of the overlapping address ranges of the range rows 708-2 and708-3.

In scenarios where a second tree (such as the second tree 760 of FIG.14B) is created, an anchor merge may later merge the second anchor tree760 into the root anchor tree 744. Such an anchor merge is shown in FIG.15 and results in root anchor tree 744-3. As with the simple examplewhere no breakdown occurred (FIG. 12), the anchor tree 744-3 isequivalent to the anchor tree 744-2 of FIG. 14A. In other words, theeventual state is the same regardless of whether an additional anchorwas originally created or not.

Snapshot

In FIG. 16, a simple example of a snapshot begins with blob anchor800-0, which includes anchor trees 804-1 and 804-2. Blob anchor 800-0corresponds to an initial version, version 0, of the blob. Forillustration, the anchor trees 804-1 and 804-2 include the range rows708-1 and 708-2, respectively, of FIG. 13. When a snapshot is taken, anew blob anchor 800-1 is created for version 1 of the blob. The anchortrees 804-1 and 804-2 are inherited by the blob anchor 800-1 and arelabeled as 804-3 and 804-4.

In FIG. 17, while the blob anchor 800-0 cannot be modified, an anchormerge can be performed to reduce the number of anchor trees toward aneventual single root anchor tree. The depicted anchor merge combines theanchor trees 804-1 and 804-2 in the blob anchor 800-0 to reach anchortree 804-5.

Also in FIG. 17, a delta page file table 820 is shown and includes therange row 708-3 of FIG. 13, though the version number is 1 because inthis illustration the write occurred after a snapshot. A cross-merge isperformed to merge the delta page file table 820 into the blob anchor800-1. The cross-merge creates a new anchor tree 804-6 to hold the rangerows of the delta page file table 820.

One possible optimization is visible in this example. Because the anchortrees 804-3 and 804-4 of the blob anchor 800-1 were inherited from theanchor trees 804-1 and 804-2, respectively, of the blob anchor 800-0,and are therefore identical, the result of merging each pair of anchortrees should be the same. Therefore, the result of the anchor merge(anchor tree 800-5) can be used to replace the anchor trees 804-3 and804-4 of the blob anchor 800-1. In other words, a single anchor mergeoperation can effectively merge the anchor trees 804-3 and 804-4 as wellas the anchor trees 804-1 and 804-2.

In FIG. 18, an anchor merge is shown in which the anchor trees 804-3 and804-4 are merged into a new root anchor 804-7. For example, anchor tree804-6 may have been undergoing an operation (such as a cross-merge) andtherefore the anchor merge excluded the anchor tree 804-6.

If the anchor tree 804-6 were not undergoing another operation, allthree of the anchor trees 804-3, 804-4 and 804-6 might be mergedtogether at the same time, as shown in FIG. 19. A resulting root anchortree 804-8 includes the three ranges created by range breakdown.

Block Diagram

In FIG. 20, an example table server 900 includes a memory tablesubsystem 904 that receives and stores addresses corresponding to writedata. Meanwhile, the write data is stored by a stream write subsystem908 into the stream layer (see 420 of FIG. 7). The write addresses mayalso be stored by a log subsystem 912. If a partition needs to bereloaded by the table server 900, the logs of writes can be replayedfrom the log subsystem 912 to rebuild the corresponding memory table inthe memory table subsystem 904. The memory table subsystem 904 storesthe addresses in memory, such as volatile random access memory (RAM),with relatively fast random write speed and relatively fast random writespeed. This is in contrast with technologies such as flash memory, inwhich random write speed is much lower than sequential write speedbecause entire blocks of data need to be rewritten in order to makesmall writes.

An index management system 916 controls performance of a checkpoint toincorporate the index entries in the memory table subsystem 904 to deltapage file tables in a delta table subsystem 920. The index managementsystem 916 controls a cross-merge operation to merge delta page filetables from the delta table subsystem 920 into a file table subsystem924.

In response to a read request specifying read addresses, a read iterator928 parses the index data of the memory table subsystem 904, the deltatable subsystem 920, and the file table subsystem 924 to determine wherethe latest data corresponding to the requested addresses is stored. Theread iterator 928 then requests that a stream read subsystem 932provides the data from the corresponding addresses in response to theread request. Together, the read iterator 928 and the stream readsubsystem 932 may be referred to as a read system 934.

The index management system 916 actuates a garbage collection system936, which reads user data from underutilized extents in the streamlayer and writes that data to new extents. These new extents will be, atleast initially, closer to fully-utilized. The table server 900 mayperform the operations described in FIGS. 21-23. In otherimplementations, some or all of the functionality described in FIGS.21-23 may be performed by another entity in the cloud storage system.

Flowcharts

In FIG. 21, cross-merge operation begins at 1004. If the number ofanchor trees is equal to 1, control transfers to 1008 to create a newanchor tree. In other words, cross-merge never merges delta page filetables directly into a root anchor tree. If the number of anchor treesis greater than 1, control transfers to 1012. After the new anchor treeis created at 1008, control transfers to 1016.

At 1012, control determines whether there is an operation pending on thelast anchor tree. If so, control transfers to 1008 to create a newanchor tree; otherwise, control transfers to 1020. At 1020, control setsa threshold for anchor tree size. For example, this may be apredetermined value.

At 1024, control determines whether this cross-merge is a bulletcross-merge. If so, control transfers to 1028; otherwise, controltransfers to 1030. A bullet cross-merge is a special cross-merge that issolely concerned with a single blob. For example, a copy command forthat blob may be waiting to execute. The bullet cross-merge, therefore,merges only the delta page file table entries corresponding to that bloband leaves the remaining entries in the delta page file tables.

At 1028, control decreases the threshold and continues at 1032. Thethreshold is decreased to make it more likely that a bullet cross-mergewill create a new anchor tree. This ensures that the bullet cross-mergeencounters low latency since bullet cross-merges are generally invokedin response to customer requests to copy blobs. The distributed storagesystem may be configured to reduce latency for customer requests.Control also selects the blob of interest to the bullet cross-merge.Control then continues at 1032.

At 1030, control selects the first blob of the blobs to be parsed by thecross-merge. For example, the first blob may be indicated by the firstrow in the present partition of the XTable. Control then continues at1032. At 1032, if the size of the last anchor tree is greater than thethreshold, control transfers to 1008 to create a new anchor tree;otherwise, control continues at 1016.

At 1016, if the number of anchor trees is greater than a threshold,control transfers to 1036; otherwise, control transfers to 1040. At1032, control requests an anchor merge, described in more detail in FIG.22. Control then continues at 1040. At 1040, control selects a firstversion of a first blob. At 1044, control parses the delta page filetables to identify page ranges for the selected blob version. At 1048,control merges the identified page ranges into the last anchor tree ofthe anchor for the selected blob version, performing range breakdown asnecessary. At 1052, if there are additional blob versions for theselected blob, control transfers to 1056; otherwise, control transfersto 1060. At 1056, control selects the next version of the selected bloband returns to 1044.

At 1060, if the cross-merge is a bullet cross-merge, then all versionsof the blob of interest have been processed and control ends; otherwise,control transfers to 1064. At 1064, control determines whether there areadditional blobs in the partition. If so, control transfers to 1068,where the next blob is selected and control continues at 1040.Otherwise, if there are no additional blobs to merge on, control ends.

In FIG. 22, anchor merge operation begins at 1104. If the number ofanchor trees is equal to 1, anchor merge is not necessary and,therefore, control ends; otherwise, control transfers to 1112. At 1112,control initializes a Total_Size variable to zero and a Tree_Countvariable to zero. Control then selects the last (most-recently-created)anchor tree.

At 1116, control determines whether an operation (likely cross-merge) isactive on the selected tree. If so, control transfers to 1120;otherwise, control transfers to 1124. At 1120, control determineswhether there are additional anchor trees. If so, control transfers to1128; otherwise, there are no anchor trees currently available to bemerged and control ends. At 1128, control selects the prior anchor tree(the one created previous to the currently-selected anchor tree) andcontinues at 1116.

At 1124, control flags the selected tree for anchor merging. Controladds the size of the selected tree to the Total_Size variable andincrements the Tree_Count variable. Control continues at 1132, where ifTotal_Size is greater than a first threshold or Tree_Count is greaterthan a second threshold, control transfer transfers to 1136; otherwise,control transfer to 1140. At 1140, neither threshold has yet been metfor anchor merge and, therefore, control determines whether there areadditional anchor trees. If there are additional anchor trees toevaluate, control transfers to 1144; otherwise, control transfers to1108. At 1108, control clears anchor merge flags from all trees and thenends.

At 1144, control selects the prior tree and continues at 1152. At 1152,control determines whether an operation (likely garbage collection) isactive on the selected tree. If so, the selected tree cannot be used foranchor merge and, therefore, control transfers to 1108. Otherwise, if nooperation is active, control transfers to 1124.

At 1136, control determines whether the write amplification resultingfrom the currently-pending anchor merge is greater than a threshold. Ifso, control transfers to 1140 to see if additional anchor trees can beadded to reduce the write amplification. If the write amplification isless than the threshold, control transfers to 1148. At 1148, controlmerges the flagged trees into a new tree and, at 1152, control replacesthe flagged trees with the new tree. Control then ends.

In FIG. 23, example garbage collection fora specified anchor begins at1204. Control invokes an anchor merge on the specified anchor. Ifgarbage collection had been waiting for an anchor merge to complete,control may skip invoking another anchor merge. At 1208, controlidentifies a set of extents eligible for garbage collection. Forexample, this may be a list of extents whose the amount of valid data inthe extent is less than a threshold. The threshold may be expressed as apercentage of total extent storage space, such as a value of 50%. Theset of extents eligible for garbage collection may be maintained for thepartition so that the set of extents in 1208 can simply be read from astorage location.

At 1212, if the number of anchor trees is equal to 1, control transferto 1216; otherwise, controls transfers to 1220. If there is more thanone anchor tree, garbage collection may wish to avoid rewriting extentsthat are pointed to by non-root anchor trees. In other words, whengarbage collection is configured to operate only on the root anchortree, modifications should not be made to extents that are also pointedto by other anchor trees. If such extents were modified by garbagecollection, the corresponding non-root anchor trees would also have tobe modified.

Therefore, at 1220, control selects the second anchor tree and continuesat 1224. At 1224, control selects the first page range of the selectedanchor tree. At 1228, control removes the extent referenced by theselected page range from the set of extents for garbage collection.Control continues at 1232.

If, at 1242, there are additional page ranges, control transfers to1236; otherwise, control transfers to 1240. At 1236, control selects thenext page range of the selected tree and continues at 1228. At 1240,control determines whether there are additional anchor trees. If so,control transfers to 1244; otherwise, control transfers 1216. At 1244,control selects the next tree and continues at 1224.

At 1216, control selects the first page range of the first anchor tree.At 1252, control determines whether the extent referenced by theselected page range is within the set of extents eligible for garbagecollection. If so, control transfers to 1256; otherwise, controlcontinues at 1260. At 1256, control writes the referenced data to a newextent and continues at 1260. At 1260, if there are additional pageranges within the selected anchor tree, control transfers to 1264;otherwise, control transfers to 1268. At 1264, control selects the nextpage range and continues at 1252. At 1268, control writes the new anchortree, whose page ranges point to the newly-written data, to replace theprior root anchor tree.

CONCLUSION

The foregoing description is merely illustrative in nature and is in noway intended to limit the disclosure, its application, or uses. Thebroad teachings of the disclosure can be implemented in a variety offorms. Therefore, while this disclosure includes particular examples,the true scope of the disclosure should not be so limited since othermodifications will become apparent upon a study of the drawings, thespecification, and the following claims. It should be understood thatone or more steps within a method may be executed in different order (orconcurrently) without altering the principles of the present disclosure.Further, although each of the embodiments is described above as havingcertain features, any one or more of those features described withrespect to any embodiment of the disclosure can be implemented in and/orcombined with features of any of the other embodiments, even if thatcombination is not explicitly described. In other words, the describedembodiments are not mutually exclusive, and permutations of one or moreembodiments with one another remain within the scope of this disclosure.

Spatial and functional relationships between elements (for example,between modules) are described using various terms, including“connected,” “engaged,” “interfaced,” and “coupled.” Unless explicitlydescribed as being “direct,” when a relationship between first andsecond elements is described in the above disclosure, that relationshipencompasses a direct relationship where no other intervening elementsare present between the first and second elements, and also an indirectrelationship where one or more intervening elements are present (eitherspatially or functionally) between the first and second elements. Asused herein, the phrase at least one of A, B, and C should be construedto mean a logical (A OR B OR C), using a non-exclusive logical OR, andshould not be construed to mean “at least one of A, at least one of B,and at least one of C.”

In the figures, the direction of an arrow, as indicated by thearrowhead, generally demonstrates the flow of information (such as dataor instructions) that is of interest to the illustration. For example,when element A and element B exchange a variety of information butinformation transmitted from element A to element B is relevant to theillustration, the arrow may point from element A to element B. Thisunidirectional arrow does not imply that no other information istransmitted from element B to element A. Further, for information sentfrom element A to element B, element B may send requests for, or receiptacknowledgements of, the information to element A.

In this application, including the definitions below, the term ‘module’or the term ‘controller’ may be replaced with the term ‘circuit.’ Theterm ‘module’ may refer to, be part of, or include processor hardware(shared, dedicated, or group) that executes code and memory hardware(shared, dedicated, or group) that stores code executed by the processorhardware.

The module may include one or more interface circuits. In some examples,the interface circuits may include wired or wireless interfaces that areconnected to a local area network (LAN), the Internet, a wide areanetwork (WAN), or combinations thereof. The functionality of any givenmodule of the present disclosure may be distributed among multiplemodules that are connected via interface circuits. For example, multiplemodules may allow load balancing. In a further example, a server (alsoknown as remote, or cloud) module may accomplish some functionality onbehalf of a client module.

The term code, as used above, may include software, firmware, and/ormicrocode, and may refer to programs, routines, functions, classes, datastructures, and/or objects. Shared processor hardware encompasses asingle microprocessor that executes some or all code from multiplemodules. Group processor hardware encompasses a microprocessor that, incombination with additional microprocessors, executes some or all codefrom one or more modules. References to multiple microprocessorsencompass multiple microprocessors on discrete dies, multiplemicroprocessors on a single die, multiple cores of a singlemicroprocessor, multiple threads of a single microprocessor, or acombination of the above.

Shared memory hardware encompasses a single memory device that storessome or all code from multiple modules. Group memory hardwareencompasses a memory device that, in combination with other memorydevices, stores some or all code from one or more modules.

The term memory hardware is a subset of the term computer-readablemedium. The term computer-readable medium, as used herein, does notencompass transitory electrical or electromagnetic signals propagatingthrough a medium (such as on a carrier wave); the term computer-readablemedium is therefore considered tangible and non-transitory. Non-limitingexamples of a non-transitory computer-readable medium are nonvolatilememory devices (such as a flash memory device, an erasable programmableread-only memory device, or a mask read-only memory device), volatilememory devices (such as a static random access memory device or adynamic random access memory device), magnetic storage media (such as ananalog or digital magnetic tape or a hard disk drive), and opticalstorage media (such as a CD, a DVD, or a Blu-ray Disc).

The apparatuses and methods described in this application may bepartially or fully implemented by a special purpose computer created byconfiguring a general purpose computer to execute one or more particularfunctions embodied in computer programs. The functional blocks andflowchart elements described above serve as software specifications,which can be translated into the computer programs by the routine workof a skilled technician or programmer.

The computer programs include processor-executable instructions that arestored on at least one non-transitory computer-readable medium. Thecomputer programs may also include or rely on stored data. The computerprograms may encompass a basic input/output system (BIOS) that interactswith hardware of the special purpose computer, device drivers thatinteract with particular devices of the special purpose computer, one ormore operating systems, user applications, background services,background applications, etc.

The computer programs may include: (i) descriptive text to be parsed,such as HTML (hypertext markup language), XML (extensible markuplanguage), or JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) (ii) assembly code,(iii) object code generated from source code by a compiler, (iv) sourcecode for execution by an interpreter, (v) source code for compilationand execution by a just-in-time compiler, etc. As examples only, sourcecode may be written using syntax from languages including C, C++, C#,Objective-C, Swift, Haskell, Go, SQL, R, Lisp, Java®, Fortran, Perl,Pascal, Curl, OCaml, Javascript®, HTML5 (Hypertext Markup Language 5threvision), Ada, ASP (Active Server Pages), PHP (PHP: HypertextPreprocessor), Scala, Eiffel, Smalltalk, Erlang, Ruby, Flash®, VisualBasic®, Lua, MATLAB, SIMULINK, and Python®.

None of the elements recited in the claims are intended to be ameans-plus-function element within the meaning of 35 U.S.C. § 112(f)unless an element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for” or,in the case of a method claim, using the phrases “operation for” or“step for.”

1. A distributed storage system comprising: non-volatile storageconfigured to store a plurality of portions of a first object, whereinthe first object encompasses data having a first range of addresses, andwherein each portion of the plurality of portions of the first objectincludes data for a respective range of addresses that is a propersubset of the first range of addresses; and a file table subsystemconfigured to maintain a first data structure that stores, for eachportion of the plurality of portions of the first object: dataindicating the respective range of addresses; and a pointer to where theportion is stored in the non-volatile storage, wherein the first datastructure includes (i) a root tree and (ii) an ordered set of treesordered by creation data such that a last tree of the ordered set oftrees is most-recently created; a write buffer configured to: inresponse to receiving write data for the plurality of portions of thefirst object, store index data regarding the write data, wherein thenon-volatile storage is configured to store the received write data, andwherein the index data points to locations of the received write datawithin the non-volatile storage; and an index management systemconfigured to perform a merge operation to incorporate contents of thewrite buffer into the first data structure, wherein the merge operationincludes: storing the index data from the write buffer into the lasttree of the ordered set of trees; and prior to the storing, and inresponse to the ordered set of trees being empty, creating a tree in theordered set of trees.
 2. The distributed storage system of claim 1,wherein the merge operation includes, prior to the storing, and inresponse to the ordered set of trees being non-empty and an operationbeing pending on the last tree of the ordered set of trees, adding atree to the ordered set of trees.
 3. The distributed storage system ofclaim 1, wherein the merge operation includes, prior to the storing, andin response to the last tree of the ordered set of trees exceeding afirst size threshold, adding a tree to the ordered set of trees.
 4. Thedistributed storage system of claim 3, wherein the index managementsystem is configured to perform a targeted merge operation, wherein: themerge operation includes merging the index data from the write bufferinto a plurality of data structures including the first data structure;the targeted merge operation includes merging relevant portions of theindex data from the write buffer only into the first data structure; thetargeted merge operation includes, in response to the last tree of theordered set of trees exceeding a second size threshold, adding a tree tothe ordered set of trees; and the second size threshold is smaller thanthe first size threshold.
 5. The distributed storage system of claim 1,wherein the write buffer comprises volatile memory separate from thenon-volatile storage.
 6. The distributed storage system of claim 1,wherein: the index management system is configured to merge the roottree with at least one of the ordered set of trees; and the at least oneof the ordered set of trees includes a first tree of the ordered set oftrees.
 7. The distributed storage system of claim 1, wherein the indexmanagement system is configured to perform garbage collection on theroot tree and prevent garbage collection from being performed on theordered set of trees.
 8. The distributed storage system of claim 1,further comprising a memory table configured to store the index dataregarding the received write data prior to the index data being storedinto the write buffer.
 9. The distributed storage system of claim 8,further comprising a read system configured to, in response to a readrequest for a specified range of addresses: consult the memory table,the write buffer, and the first data structure to identify latestversions of data within the specified range of addresses; assemble thelatest versions into a contiguous block; and respond to the read requestwith the contiguous block.
 10. The distributed storage system of claim9, wherein consulting the first data structure includes consulting (i)the ordered set of trees in reverse order starting with the last treeand (ii) the root tree.
 11. A computer-implemented method for adistributed storage system, the method comprising: for a first objectthat encompasses data having a first range of addresses, storing aplurality of portions of the first object in non-volatile storage,wherein each portion of the plurality of portions of the first objectincludes data for a respective range of addresses that is a propersubset of the first range of addresses; maintaining a first datastructure that stores, for each portion of the plurality of portions ofthe first object: data indicating the respective range of addresses; anda pointer to where the portion is stored in the non-volatile storage,wherein the first data structure includes (i) a root tree and (ii) anordered set of trees ordered by creation data such that a last tree ofthe ordered set of trees is most-recently created; in response toreceiving write data: storing the received write data into thenon-volatile storage; and storing index data regarding the receivedwrite data into a write buffer, wherein the index data points tolocations of the received write data in the non-volatile storage; andperforming a merge operation to incorporate contents of the write bufferinto the first data structure, wherein the merge operation includes:storing the index data from the write buffer into the last tree of theordered set of trees; and prior to the storing, and in response to theordered set of trees being empty, creating a tree in the ordered set oftrees.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the merge operation includes,prior to the storing, and in response to the ordered set of trees beingnon-empty and an operation being pending on the last tree of the orderedset of trees, adding a tree to the ordered set of trees.
 13. The methodof claim 11, wherein the merge operation includes, prior to the storing,and in response to the last tree of the ordered set of trees exceeding afirst size threshold, adding a tree to the ordered set of trees.
 14. Themethod of claim 13, further comprising performing a targeted mergeoperation, wherein: the merge operation includes merging the index datafrom the write buffer into a plurality of data structures including thefirst data structure; the targeted merge operation includes mergingrelevant portions of the index data from the write buffer only into thefirst data structure; the targeted merge operation includes, in responseto the last tree of the ordered set of trees exceeding a second sizethreshold, adding a tree to the ordered set of trees; and the secondsize threshold is smaller than the first size threshold.
 15. The methodof claim 11, further comprising merging the root tree with at least oneof the ordered set of trees, wherein the at least one of the ordered setof trees includes a first tree of the ordered set of trees.
 16. Themethod of claim 11, further comprising performing garbage collection onthe root tree and preventing garbage collection from being performed onthe ordered set of trees.
 17. The method of claim 11, further comprisingstoring the index data regarding the received write data in a memorytable prior to the index data being stored into the write buffer. 18.The method of claim 17, further comprising, in response to a readrequest for a specified range of addresses: consulting the memory table,the write buffer, and the first data structure to identify latestversions of data within the specified range of addresses; assembling thelatest versions into a contiguous block; and responding to the readrequest with the contiguous block.
 19. The method of claim 18, whereinconsulting the first data structure includes consulting (i) the orderedset of trees in reverse order starting with the last tree and (ii) theroot tree.
 20. A non-transitory computer-readable medium comprisingprocessor-executable instructions, the instructions comprising: for afirst object that encompasses data having a first range of addresses,storing a plurality of portions of the first object in non-volatilestorage, wherein each portion of the plurality of portions of the firstobject includes data for a respective range of addresses that is aproper subset of the first range of addresses; maintaining a first datastructure that stores, for each portion of the plurality of portions ofthe first object: data indicating the respective range of addresses; anda pointer to where the portion is stored in the non-volatile storage,wherein the first data structure includes (i) a root tree and (ii) anordered set of trees ordered by creation data such that a last tree ofthe ordered set of trees is most-recently created; in response toreceiving write data: storing the received write data into thenon-volatile storage; and storing index data regarding the receivedwrite data into a write buffer, wherein the index data points tolocations of the received write data in the non-volatile storage; andperforming a merge operation to incorporate contents of the write bufferinto the first data structure, wherein the merge operation includes:storing the index data from the write buffer into the last tree of theordered set of trees; and prior to the storing, and in response to theordered set of trees being empty, creating a tree in the ordered set oftrees.